CHAPTER 21
THE SCIENTIFIC AND INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENT OF THE 16th-18th CENTURIES
 
SCEINTIFIC REVOLUTION:

• 1500s:  Europeans’ World View
• Influence on Science and Philosophy

            1)  Reliance on Own Intellect
            2)  Utilitarian Use of Knowledge
            3)  Universe Rational, Not Supernatural
 
INFLUENTIAL DISCOVERIES:
1.  Exploration of the Americas
2.  Helio-Centric Solar System
 
IMPORTANT PERSONS:
1.  Copernicus
2.  Brahe
3.  Kepler
4.  Galileo
5.  Newton
 
“TOWARD A RATIONAL UNIVERSE:”

• Traditional View of Universe—Ptolemaic System
• Copernicus (1473-1543)--On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres--Helio-Centric Solar System
• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)—Observations
• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)--On Motion of Mars—Elliptical Orbits
• Galileo (1564-1642)—Nature is Rational
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)--Novum Organum (1620)—Empirical Observations
• René Descartes (1596-1650)—Theoretical Approach—Universe was a Machine
• SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727):
• Early Discoveries
• Universal Gravity--Principia Mathematica (1687)
• Implications:

 
SCIENCE AND RELIGION:

• Scientists not Anti-Religious
• New Views of God and Universe—Rational God/Rationality of Humans
• Implications

 
THE “ENLIGHTENMENT AND ITS IMPACT”
 
THE ENLIGHTENMENT:

• Rational Approach to Thought
• Assumptions:

            1)  Triumph of the Natural over the Supernatural
            2)  Scientific Method
            3)  Perfectibility of Humans

• Interest in Gov’t—“Logical Gov’t”

 
17th CENTURY PRECURSORS TO THE ENLIGHTEMENT MENTALITY:

• Newton & the Scientific Method
• John Locke & Questions of Relationships to Gov’t—1690 “2nd Treatise of Government”
• 1690:  Essay Concerning Human Understanding—“Tabula Rasa”

 
THE ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHES AND THEIR QUESTIONS:

• Emphasis on Reason/Logic
• Intense Interest in the Nature of Gov’t and Citizenship
• Problems in France

 
ENLIGHTENED “PHILOSOPHES”:

• Voltaire (1694-1778):  Civil Liberties, Candide (1759)
• Montesquieu (1689-1755):  Separation of Power--Spirit of the Laws (1748)
• Denis Diderot (1713-1784):  The Encyclopedia
• Rouseau (1712-1778):  Émile (1762) & Social Contract (1762)
• Adam Smith (1723-1790)—Wealth of Nations (1776)—“Invisible Hand”

 
DEISM:

• Separation of God from Daily Life
• Deism:  God as the “Divine Watch Maker”
• Religion of Logic not Theology
• Toleration
• Voltaire on Religion

 
ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM:

• Definition:  Absolutism influenced by Enlightenment
• “Service to the State”
• Ties to Philosophes
• Enlightened Absolute Monarchs—Frederick the Great (Prussia); Maria Theresa, Joseph II (Austria); Catherine the Great (Russia)

 
 
 
CHAPTER 22
REVOLUTION IN THE TRANS-ATLANTIC WORLD, 1775-1826
 
TRANS-ATLANTIC   REVOLUTIONS:

• Wave of Revolution b/n 1775-1825
• Connections:

1. Political
2. Economic
3. Enlightened Ideas

 
THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION:
Life, Liberty, Pursuit of Happiness
 
THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION:

• Seven Years’ War, Peace of Paris 1763
• Post-War Issues—N. America
• American Revolution (1775-1783)
• American Political Ideals: 
• Locke—George III was Tyrannical
• Ideas of Trenchard and Gordon
• Conclusion of American Revolution

 
THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION:
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
 
THE  COMING  OF  THE  REVOLUTION:

• Nature of France b/f Revolution
• 3 Key Issues:

            A)  Social Tensions—First, Second & Third Estates
            B)  Financial  Problems
            C) Administrative Weaknesses
 
THREE-PHASE  REVOLUTION:
Three Phases:

1. Moderate Phase (1789-1792)—Constitutional Monarchy—End Old Regime
2. Radical Phase (1792-1794)—Abolition of the Monarchy—Creation of Republic—Reign of Terror
3. Thermidorian Reaction (1794-1799)—Moderation of Revolution/Republic

 
PHASE I:  MODERATE REVOLUTION:
 
THE  ESTATES  GENERAL  AND  THE BEGINNING  OF  THE  REVOLUTION:

• Economic Crisis and the Summoning of the Estates General
• Grievances--Cahiers de Dolances
• Siéyès and the Third Estate
• Formation of the National Assembly
• “Tennis Court Oath”—Beginning of the Revolution

 
THE ESTATES GENERAL AND THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION:

• Spread of Revolution—“First Stage”—(Moderate)

            1. Bastille (14 July 1789)
            2. “Great Fear”
            3. 27 Aug. 1789:  Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens
            4. 5 Oct. 1789:  Women’s March on Versailles
            5. Secularization of the Church
            6. Constitution
 
PHASE II:  POPULAR REVOLUTION AND RADICALIZATION:
RADICALIZATION 1791-92:

• Causes of Radicalization:

            1.  Disillusionment/Continued Economic Problems
            2.  Death of Moderate Leaders
            3.  “Flight to Verannes”
            4.  Declaration of Pilnitz (1791)

• The Jacobins/Girondins
• War w/Austria & Prussia—20 April 1792 (First Coalition)—Duke of Brunswick
• Toward a Republic—Radicals Jacobins (Mountain) & National Convention

 
“REPUBLIC  OF  VIRTUE”:

• Sept. Massacre (1792)
• “Second Revolution”--Sans-Culottes
• Abolition of Monarchy/Proclamation of “Republic of Virtue” (1792-1794)
• Jan. 21, 1793:  Louis XVI Executed
• Creation of a New Society

 
THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR:

• Committee of Public Safety—Danton, Robespierre
• Reign of Terror (Sept. 1793-July 1794)
• “Thermidorian Reaction”—Moderation
• Constitution of 1795/Directory
• Oct. 1795: Paris Uprising

 
THERMIDORIAN REACTION:
 
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
 
NAPOLEON:

• Childhood/Early Life & Skills
• 1795: Suppression of Royalist Revolt in Paris
• 1796-99:  Italian, Swiss & Egyptian  Campaigns
• 1799:  The Coup d’Etat
• Consulate, 1799-1804—Reforms

            1) Concordat w/Church, 1801
            2) Economic Reform
            3) Code Napoleon
            4) Educational Reform
 
NAPOLEON’S  EMPIRE:

• 1804—Emperor/The Napoleonic Empire—Renewed War
• Oct. 21, 1805:  Battle of Trafalgar—Fr. Defeated
• Continental System
• Spanish Campaign
• Russian Campaign 1812/13
• Defeat of Napoleon 1814/1815

 
CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA:

• “Restore Europe”
• Important Persons:  Alexander I (Rus)*, Metternich (Aus)*, Castlereagh/Duke of Wellington (GB), Tallyrand (Fr.)
• Views of Alexander (Liberal)
• Views of Metternich (Conservative)
• Negotiations at Vienna
• Napoleon’s “100 Days” and Battle of Waterloo

 
LATIN AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE:

• Nature of Latin American Independence

 
Three Issues:

1. Economic—Monopoly vs. Free Trade; Consolidation of Wealth
2. Political Tensions—Colonial Administration
3. Diverse Populations—Native Americans, Slaves, Creoles & Peninsulares

• Immediate Cause—Napoleonic Wars
• Haiti—Toussaint L’Ouverture
• South America—Jose de San Martín & Simón Bolivar
• Issues with Governing South American Countries--Caudillos
• Mexico—Hidalgo Uprising (1811) & Independence (1821)
• Brazil—Pedro I (Empire 1822) & Pedro II (r. 1825-1889)
• Results/Analysis of Latin America Independence