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CHAPTER 21
THE SCIENTIFIC AND INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENT OF THE 16th-18th CENTURIES
 
SCEINTIFIC REVOLUTION:
  • 1500s:  Europeans’ World View
  • Influence on Science and Philosophy
            1)  Reliance on Own Intellect
            2)  Utilitarian Use of Knowledge
            3)  Universe Rational, Not Supernatural
 
INFLUENTIAL DISCOVERIES:
1.  Exploration of the Americas
2.  Helio-Centric Solar System
 
IMPORTANT PERSONS:
1.  Copernicus
2.  Brahe
3.  Kepler
4.  Galileo
5.  Newton
 
“TOWARD A RATIONAL UNIVERSE:”
  • Traditional View of Universe—Ptolemaic System
  • Copernicus (1473-1543)--On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres--Helio-Centric Solar System
  • Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)—Observations
  • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)--On Motion of Mars—Elliptical Orbits
  • Galileo (1564-1642)—Nature is Rational
  • Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)--Novum Organum (1620)—Empirical Observations
  • René Descartes (1596-1650)—Theoretical Approach—Universe was a Machine
  • SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727):
  • Early Discoveries
  • Universal Gravity--Principia Mathematica (1687)
  • Implications:
 
SCIENCE AND RELIGION:
  • Scientists not Anti-Religious
  • New Views of God and Universe—Rational God/Rationality of Humans
  • Implications
 
THE “ENLIGHTENMENT AND ITS IMPACT”
 
THE ENLIGHTENMENT:
  • Rational Approach to Thought
  • Assumptions:
            1)  Triumph of the Natural over the Supernatural
            2)  Scientific Method
            3)  Perfectibility of Humans
  • Interest in Gov’t—“Logical Gov’t”
 
17th CENTURY PRECURSORS TO THE ENLIGHTEMENT MENTALITY:
  • Newton & the Scientific Method
  • John Locke & Questions of Relationships to Gov’t—1690 “2nd Treatise of Government”
  • 1690:  Essay Concerning Human Understanding—“Tabula Rasa”
 
THE ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHES AND THEIR QUESTIONS:
  • Emphasis on Reason/Logic
  • Intense Interest in the Nature of Gov’t and Citizenship
  • Problems in France
 
ENLIGHTENED “PHILOSOPHES”:
  • Voltaire (1694-1778):  Civil Liberties, Candide (1759)
  • Montesquieu (1689-1755):  Separation of Power--Spirit of the Laws (1748)
  • Denis Diderot (1713-1784):  The Encyclopedia
  • Rouseau (1712-1778):  Émile (1762) & Social Contract (1762)
  • Adam Smith (1723-1790)—Wealth of Nations (1776)—“Invisible Hand”
 
DEISM:
  • Separation of God from Daily Life
  • Deism:  God as the “Divine Watch Maker”
  • Religion of Logic not Theology
  • Toleration
  • Voltaire on Religion
 
ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM:
  • Definition:  Absolutism influenced by Enlightenment
  • “Service to the State”
  • Ties to Philosophes
  • Enlightened Absolute Monarchs—Frederick the Great (Prussia); Maria Theresa, Joseph II (Austria); Catherine the Great (Russia)
 
 
 
CHAPTER 22
REVOLUTION IN THE TRANS-ATLANTIC WORLD, 1775-1826
 
TRANS-ATLANTIC   REVOLUTIONS:
  • Wave of Revolution b/n 1775-1825
  • Connections:
  1. Political
  2. Economic
  3. Enlightened Ideas
 
THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION:
Life, Liberty, Pursuit of Happiness
 
THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION:
  • Seven Years’ War, Peace of Paris 1763
  • Post-War Issues—N. America
  • American Revolution (1775-1783)
  • American Political Ideals: 
  • Locke—George III was Tyrannical
  • Ideas of Trenchard and Gordon
  • Conclusion of American Revolution
 
THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION:
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
 
THE  COMING  OF  THE  REVOLUTION:
  • Nature of France b/f Revolution
  • 3 Key Issues:
            A)  Social Tensions—First, Second & Third Estates
            B)  Financial  Problems
            C) Administrative Weaknesses
 
THREE-PHASE  REVOLUTION:
Three Phases:
  1. Moderate Phase (1789-1792)—Constitutional Monarchy—End Old Regime
  2. Radical Phase (1792-1794)—Abolition of the Monarchy—Creation of Republic—Reign of Terror
  3. Thermidorian Reaction (1794-1799)—Moderation of Revolution/Republic
 
PHASE I:  MODERATE REVOLUTION:
 
THE  ESTATES  GENERAL  AND  THE BEGINNING  OF  THE  REVOLUTION:
  • Economic Crisis and the Summoning of the Estates General
  • Grievances--Cahiers de Dolances
  • Siéyès and the Third Estate
  • Formation of the National Assembly
  • “Tennis Court Oath”—Beginning of the Revolution
 
THE ESTATES GENERAL AND THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION:
  • Spread of Revolution—“First Stage”—(Moderate)
            1. Bastille (14 July 1789)
            2. “Great Fear”
            3. 27 Aug. 1789:  Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens
            4. 5 Oct. 1789:  Women’s March on Versailles
            5. Secularization of the Church
            6. Constitution
 
PHASE II:  POPULAR REVOLUTION AND RADICALIZATION:
RADICALIZATION 1791-92:
  • Causes of Radicalization:
            1.  Disillusionment/Continued Economic Problems
            2.  Death of Moderate Leaders
            3.  “Flight to Verannes”
            4.  Declaration of Pilnitz (1791)
  • The Jacobins/Girondins
  • War w/Austria & Prussia—20 April 1792 (First Coalition)—Duke of Brunswick
  • Toward a Republic—Radicals Jacobins (Mountain) & National Convention
 
“REPUBLIC  OF  VIRTUE”:
  • Sept. Massacre (1792)
  • “Second Revolution”--Sans-Culottes
  • Abolition of Monarchy/Proclamation of “Republic of Virtue” (1792-1794)
  • Jan. 21, 1793:  Louis XVI Executed
  • Creation of a New Society
 
THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR:
  • Committee of Public Safety—Danton, Robespierre
  • Reign of Terror (Sept. 1793-July 1794)
  • “Thermidorian Reaction”—Moderation
  • Constitution of 1795/Directory
  • Oct. 1795: Paris Uprising
 
THERMIDORIAN REACTION:
 
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
 
NAPOLEON:
  • Childhood/Early Life & Skills
  • 1795: Suppression of Royalist Revolt in Paris
  • 1796-99:  Italian, Swiss & Egyptian  Campaigns
  • 1799:  The Coup d’Etat
  • Consulate, 1799-1804—Reforms
            1) Concordat w/Church, 1801
            2) Economic Reform
            3) Code Napoleon
            4) Educational Reform
 
NAPOLEON’S  EMPIRE:
  • 1804—Emperor/The Napoleonic Empire—Renewed War
  • Oct. 21, 1805:  Battle of Trafalgar—Fr. Defeated
  • Continental System
  • Spanish Campaign
  • Russian Campaign 1812/13
  • Defeat of Napoleon 1814/1815
 
CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA:
  • “Restore Europe”
  • Important Persons:  Alexander I (Rus)*, Metternich (Aus)*, Castlereagh/Duke of Wellington (GB), Tallyrand (Fr.)
  • Views of Alexander (Liberal)
  • Views of Metternich (Conservative)
  • Negotiations at Vienna
  • Napoleon’s “100 Days” and Battle of Waterloo
 
LATIN AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE:
  • Nature of Latin American Independence
 
Three Issues:
  1. Economic—Monopoly vs. Free Trade; Consolidation of Wealth
  2. Political Tensions—Colonial Administration
  3. Diverse Populations—Native Americans, Slaves, Creoles & Peninsulares
  • Immediate Cause—Napoleonic Wars
  • Haiti—Toussaint L’Ouverture
  • South America—Jose de San Martín & Simón Bolivar
  • Issues with Governing South American Countries--Caudillos
  • Mexico—Hidalgo Uprising (1811) & Independence (1821)
  • Brazil—Pedro I (Empire 1822) & Pedro II (r. 1825-1889)
  • Results/Analysis of Latin America Independence
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